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An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, published in 1689 by John Locke, is a foundational work of philosophy that establishes the basis for British Empiricism by investigating the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge. Locke begins his argument in the first book by categorically rejecting the doctrine of innate ideas, which held that certain moral, logical, or metaphysical principles are imprinted on the human mind from birth. He argues that if innate ideas existed, they would be universally accepted and recognized even by children and people with mental disabilities, which is clearly not the case. Instead, Locke proposes that the mind is initially a "tabula rasa" or blank slate, devoid of any knowledge or ideas.

Following the denial of innate ideas, Locke dedicates the majority of the book to demonstrating that all our knowledge derives from experience. Knowledge is constructed from ideas, which are defined as whatever the mind is conscious of. These ideas enter the mind from two sources: first, sensation (perceiving external objects through the senses, such as colors, sounds, and tastes); and second, reflection (the perception of the internal operations of our own minds, such as thinking, willing, and doubting). Simple ideas (like "red" or "sweet") are the building blocks that the mind passively receives. The mind then actively combines and relates these simple ideas to form complex ideas (such as "substance," "mode," and "relation"), which constitute the entirety of our thought.

Locke also explores the crucial distinction between primary qualities and secondary qualities. Primary qualities (such as solidity, extension, figure, and motion) are real, inseparable properties of objects, existing independently of our perception. Secondary qualities (such as color, sound, and taste), however, do not exist in the objects themselves but are merely "powers" in the objects to produce the corresponding sensations in us. Finally, Locke discusses the extent and limits of human knowledge, arguing that our knowledge is limited by our ability to obtain ideas from experience and to perceive the agreement or disagreement between those ideas. He further addresses language, critiquing the imprecision of words and their role in complicating communication and philosophy, concluding that our understanding, though limited, is sufficient to guide our conduct and practical needs.